Physiological method of reducing stress (part2)

Anti-anxiety drugs

-       Beta blocker: These cause change in the circulatory system. They have no dependence problems but can have some side effects.

-       Benzodiazepines:  These increase the activity of the neurotransmitter GABA which inhibits activation throughout the nervous system by reducing, for example, serotonin level. They also have undesirable side effects, and their sudden removal can lead to intense anxiety.

-       Buspirone: This is a newer drug which does not have the sedative effects if the other drugs but it can produce headaches and depression.

 These physiological methods tend to be focused on reducing the emotion accompanying stress, in that they reduce feeling of panic.

 Criticism of physiological methods of reducing stress include

-       It is not entirely clear whether biofeedback produces long-term reductions in stress in everyday life.

-       The side effects of drugs may be unpleasant.

-       These methods do not address what might be causing the stress in that they focus on the symptoms of stress, Anti-anxiety drug should be used for dhort periods of time on low doses.

Physiological method of reducing stress (part1)

Method of managing stress

 Stress can be reduced using physiological method and psychological methods.

 Stress management may be problem focused or emotion focused.

 There is also a difference between copings with stress and managed it!

Physiological method of reducing stress

These can be include

Biofeedback

-       This has been used to give individuals feedback about the action of involuntary muscles or voluntary muscles that are not usually under conscious control.

-       If works in the short term due to operant conditioning, by relaxation, which impacts in involuntary physiological functions, or by restoring homeostasis.

-       It is less clear that biofeedback can produce long-term reductions in stress in everyday life.



Workplace stress

Johansson et al. (1978) and Marmot et al. (1997) both conducted research into workplace stressor.

Work place stress include environmental factor such as

-       Overcrowding,

-       Heat,

-       Pollution,

-       Noise.

 Overcrowding create stress in both humans and animals, although other factors might moderate these effect. People do not always become aggressive in overcrowded situation.

 Heat, pollution, and noise may also make people become aggressive, although some people can “true” these things out.

 Unpredictable noise requites vigilance and reduces our psychic energy, so enhancing feeling of stress.

 Other factors causing stress in the workplace include

-       Too much control,

-       Too little control,

-       Role conflict,

-       Shift work

-       Interpersonal; relationship

 The relationship between these various factor is complex.

 Burnout is an extreme effect of work-related stress.

Kiecolt-Glaser etal(1984)

Kiecolt-Glaser etal(1984)

 The study by KIecolt-Glaser et al suggested that stress could have negative effect on people by producing a lowered immune response.

AIM:

 To investigate whether stress of important examinations has an effect on the functioning of the immune system.

PROCEDURE:

-       This was a natural experiment. The researchers took blood samples from 75 first year medical students, all of whom were volunteers.

-       Blood sample were taken:

(a)  One menthe before their final examination (relatively low stress)

(b)  During the examinations(high stress)

-       Immune function was assessed by meaning T cell activity in the blood samples.

-       The students were also given questionnaires to assess psychological variables such as life events and loneliness.

FINDING:

 The blood sample taken from the first group ( before the exam) contained more T cells compared with blood samples taken during the exam.

CONCLUSION:

 Stress(of the exam) reduced the effectiveness of the immune system.

Immune system

The immune system is a collection of billions of cells that travel though the bloodstream. They move in and out of tissues and organs, defending the body against foreign bodies (antigens), such as bacteria, viruses and cancerous cells.

There are two types of lymphocytes:

B cells – produce antibodies which are related into the fluid surrounding the body’s cells to destroy the invading and bacteria.

T cells – if the invader gets inside a cell, these (T cells) lock on to the infected cells, multiply and destroy it.

The basic study of eyewitness testimony

The basic study of eyewitness testimony was held by Loftus and Palmer’s (1974). In this study, their aim was to investigate how information supplied after an event, influences a witness's memory for that event.

 Loftus and Palmer showed a series of car crash’s video to 45 students. They asked each student to fill in a questionnaire after they had seen video. One of the question was ‘How fast were the cars traveling they (smashed / collided/ bumped/ hit / contacted) into each other? Each group receives a sentence with different verb.

That finding was that the estimated speed was affected verb used. The verb implied information about the speed, which systematically affected the participants’ memory of the accidents. For example in Loftus and Palmer's second experiment, the participants first form some memory of the video they have witnessed. The experimenter then, while asking ‘Did you see any broken glass?’

It is very clear that questions following an event can influence our memories, so much so that those who were asked about speed of the car using the word ‘smashed’ felt that there was indeed smashed glass. Those not asked about the speed, and those in the group where the word ‘hit’ was used, were much less likely to remember seeing glass.

This research suggests that the wording of questions can affect the judgments of an eyewitness, and may prompt false memories.

Individual difference in modifying the effect of stressors

Not everyone reacts to stress in the same way, Individual differences are important when considering the effects of stressors. Key variable to consider include:

Personality: Type A individual cope less well with stress and are more likely to suffer from coronary heart disease. Type B individuals are more relaxed. Type C individuals may be more prone to cancer because they respond to stress by suppressing their emotions.

Hardiness: Hardly individuals cope better with stress than those who are not hardy.

Gender: Women have smaller physiological reactions than men to some stressful situations. They tend to respond to stressful situations with a tend-and-befriend response whereas men show a fight-or-flight response. The effect of oxytocin (which makes people less anxious) are reduced by male sex hormones but increased by female sex hormones.

Culture: Some cultural practices may reduce stress and increase longevity. Black Americans may have more essential hypertension than white Americans which may be because of psychological factors, or because they are more likely to respond to stressful situations with suppressed anger.

The relationship between stress and illness

The relationship between stress and physical illness is extremely complex. Caution is needed before generalizing from animal research to humans, and inferring causation from corelational studies needs to be avoided. However, research has suggested that stress can cause colds, gastric, ulcers, and cardiovascular disorders. Stress may cause illness directly by affecting the working of the immune system (the activity of lymphocytes, natural killer sells, endorphins). The field that investigates this is called psychoneuroimmunology (PNI), but the approach has been criticized for being oversimplified. Stress may cause illnesses indirectly by affecting people’s life style in that they might drink or smoke more, or take less care of themselves.

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis governs the stress response in that first is that the hypothalamus directs ANS activity via the corticotrophic releasing factor (CRF). Secondly, CRF stimulates the anterior pituitary and this triggers the release of hormones in the endocrine system (which is a group of ductless glands). Thirdly, the pituitary hormone AVTH stimulates the adrenal cortex, which produces adrenaline and nonadrenaline. Fourthly, Both of these are released as respone to stress, and they then create sympathetic arousal (which includes raised heart rate and sweating). Finally, the adrenal cortex also releases hormones such as cortisol which result in parasympatheric activity such as suppression of the immune system.

The autonomic nervous system (ANS)

The ANS is concerned with involuntary movements and vital bodily functions, and is automatic. It is divided into two branches which are the sympathetic branch, which activates internal organs for flight or flight. The second is the parasympathetic branch, which conserve energy and promotes metabolism. These two branches often operate in opposition to each other and maintain homeostasis. The ANS achieves its effect via the endocrine system which produces hormones. In stress situations, the immediate shock response arouses the sympathetic branch which prepares the individual for flight or fight. This followed by the countershock response which is designed to minimize any damage caused by the shock response. It involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis and seeks to return the body to its parasympathetic state.

Stress

Stress is an innate, defensive response to situations that threaten survival.

The bodily response to stress can be explained by looking at:

-       -The role of the autonomic nervous system and

-       -The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. However, the beneficial effects of activity in this system (described below) are achieved at much cost, and it cannot continue indefinitely at an elevated level of activity.

Continued stress can deplete our resources and may lead to illness.

Effects of Day Care

The effects of day care on social, emotional and cognitive development. The effects of social and emotional development are contradictory in many children benefit from attending day care and in that they become more sociable, for children who are shy, and insecurely attached children do not thrive in day care. However children seem to be attached to their primary caregivers, whether or not they are in day care. The effects of day care on cognitive developments depend very much on whether the cognitive stimulation provided at day care is an improvement on that provided at home. Day care has been shown to improve cognitive development in disadvantaged children, especially where intervention continues throughout childhood.

Critical Issue of Day Care

Day Care is mentioned to care infant that is provided by people which is other than the parent of relatives of the infant. It can take different form as nurseries, childminders, play groups, etc. Some people interpret that day care is bad thing. Separation of the infant and their parent would harm the child`s emotional development if the infant spent time away from a primary caregiver. In America in the 1960s there was a move towards providing pre-school care for disadvantaged children to enable them to start school on a par with their more middle-class peers. There are arguments for and against it.

Individual Differences

The main idea of “Individual Differences” is that everyone responds differently and their way of reaction. These may be caused by their innate temperamental, differences as concerning their learning terms or by following (modeling) other one’s behavior. Or it could be that differences may be related to cultural styles. For example the Japanese try to accept problems, but on one hand the Westerners take control and try to change stressful situation. The type of personality has long history in psychology. In the 1950s Friedman and Rosen man introduced a new “typology” to psychology. They showed two important personality types which were Type A and Type B. Type A is competitive, ambitious, impatient, and restless and pressured. Type B is lake these characters and are generally more relaxed than Type A.

Theories of attachment

There are 4 kinds’ theories of attachment. First is the psychodynamic approach and it suggests that attachment to the mother which is the first love object occurs because of the mother`s giving pleasure to the infant through the feeding. This approach has been criticized in babies can attach to others who do not meet their need for food and the research on rhesus monkeys has shown that attachment to a cuddly mother was more important than food. The same criticism can be made of next theory which is learning theory. It also suggest that the attachment occurs through feeding in that the infant associates food which is a primary reinforce with the mother as secondary reinforce. Third theory is that social learning theory which suggests that attachment and other relationships are learned through observation and imitation. Last theory is Bowlby`s theory of attachment. Bowlby suggested that infants are most attached to a primary caregiver who is at the top of hierarchy and it is important for healthy social development.

Attachment

According to Shaffer in 1993, an attachment was referred “a close emotional relationship between two persons, characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity [closeness]”. It is an emotional experienced throughout the people’s lifespan. The definition of Attachment is a strong, reciprocal, emotional bond between as infant and his or her caregiver(s) that it is characterized by a desire to maintain proximity. Attachments take different forms, such as secure or insecure. Infants display attachment through the degree of separation which is distressed by showing separated from the caregiver, pleasure at reunion with the caregiver, and stranger anxiety. When people say I am attached to someone, it means that it makes people feel good to be in that person`s company and also makes people feel anxious when they are not here.

Family systems theory

In 1978 Minuchin, Rosman, and Baker developed the thought as the family make a key role in the development of anorexia nervosa also it could be to bulimia. Anorexia Nervosa is a mental illness that makes people stop eating and anorexic has a fear about becoming fat and distorted body image. Even if they are underweight they see their selves as “normal”. Bulimia Nervosa is an illness which a person cannot stop themselves from eating too much, and then vomits in order to control their weight. The family which has an anorexic is called enmeshment. It means that no one has own clear identity because everything was done together. This was also represented by Blos in 1967.

The content of Stanford prison experiment (Part 2)

In 1973 Philip Zimbardo studied the issues as known as “Stanford prison experiment”. The literal events in the prison were so unpleasant and dangerous which made the entire experiment had to stop after 6 days which was supposed to be 14 days experiment. In one day, one prisoner had to be released caused by disorganized thinking, uncontrollable crying and screaming such as severe symptoms of emotional disturbance. In two days the violence and rebellion started. On the forth day two more prisoners showed symptoms of severe disturbance so they have been released. The behavior of prisoner became subdued and submissive. At the same time the aggression and the harassment by guards had increased steadily day by day.

Gender

Women live longer than man in most of the countries. It is caused by that women could handle their stress better than man. This might happen because of three possibilities. First possibility is that gender differences in physiological responses to stressors. Second possibility is gender differences in life style as reflecting different ways of handing stressful situation. Third possibility is gender difference in the behavior which produced in stressful situation. Stone et al1 in 1990 found that women’s blood pressure increases more than man in situation of performing as stressful tasks. Frankenhaeuser et al in 1976 similarly found that boy made faster increase in stress hormones than girl as taking examination. These findings show that the sympathetic adrenal medullary system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical are sensitively in males than in females.

The origin of Stanford prison experiment(Part1)

There were many problems in American prison in the 1960s. Many of these problems were concerned about the brutal attacks by prison guards to prisoners in their care.The reasons of the brutal attacks are mentioned as two possibilities. First possibility is that the people who choose to be the prison guards tend to have aggressive or sadistic personalities. Second possibility is that the behavior of prison guards caused by the social environment of prison that includes the strict power which is fond in their situation. These two possibilities were considered as dispositional and situational explanations.

genetics : athlete

It is true that the "genetic" physical ability and the ability to exercise are involved. Born from parents of run-force is strong, such as fast, is why there is a high probability that children who inherit their abilities to some extent is born.

 For example, nationality Africa, the United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands and even different, if you look at the pedigree of the players remaining in the final of the 100m in the Olympics, it is West Africa.

 There are many players from Kenya and East Africa over long distances. As you can see the Olympic Games, Usain Bolt who participated may be mentioned as an example. By these become apparent, it is appropriate to select the individual motion events and also be possible, it is possible that to find a suitable training methods.

Why do some man kill？

In general, which statement has more people who have experienced?

1）Drank alcohol at age that are prohibited by law.

2）Have killed people.

I think almost people have not experienced the second statement,

and they will never experience in the future. Although there are some differences in each person, there are criteria of "things you should not do" and “things you are not allowed to do".  I have determined that most people decide that the second statement belongs to the category of “things you should not do”.  However, the decision might also differ between people, and people also have different opinions about how strongly laws should be obeyed.  Those who think that laws are not very important are most likely to be criminals.

Are animal experiences ever justified?

I think it would not be justified. 

Animal psychology and behavior are studied　by experiments and observations in order to elucidate the (mind) of the human spirit. The research includes examining stress by giving an electric shock several times, and isolating the baby monkey away from the mother for psychological experiment.  As one could see, the experiments tend to be meaningless and cruel.  Experiments which cannot be done with human beings are done using animals, and the results are applied to humans.  Animals are suffering but their pain and fear cannot be appealed because they cannot speak.